Masculinity
Masculinity – from the Latin “masculinus”, meaning “male” – is a complex of bodily, psychological, and behavioral characteristics that are socially perceived as masculine.
Standards of manhood or masculinity vary across cultures, historical periods, and geographical regions. Age, ethnicity or race, social class, and other axes of stratification intersect with gender identity in the construction of multiple masculinities, which manifest themselves within systems of power relations. Researchers note that the attributes of traditionally masculine behavior make the meaning of manhood unstable. This means that masculine traits are not innate, but are formed through the internalization of stereotypically masculine views and beliefs, such as support for hierarchy, aggression, the demonstration of power, or physical strength (Suchasne rozuminnia maskulinnosti, 2018, p. 19).
Masculinity and femininity are social rather than biological categories. They reflect stereotypical ideas about the personal characteristics, appearance, behavior, clothing, hobbies, interests, professional activities, education, sexuality, and interpersonal relationships of women and men.
There is a wide variety of traditional models of masculinity and femininity, shaped by ethnic, religious, philosophical, and cultural contexts. However, the vast majority of these models are based on binary oppositions such as subject/object, strength/weakness, activity/passivity, and hardness/softness.
It is important to note that many contemporary societies are experiencing a crisis of femininity and masculinity, since stereotypical ideas about womanhood and manhood no longer correspond to the challenges of modern life. One vivid example of these tendencies is the concept of toxic masculinity.
Toxic masculinity refers to a set of traditionally masculine attributes that may harm not only women, but also men and the social order as a whole.
Unemployment, low income, disability, or alcohol abuse may prevent men from fulfilling the role of “breadwinner,” while the inability to provide for one’s family may be perceived as a failure to achieve the ideals of masculinity established by social norms. As a result, the norms of hegemonic masculinity may negatively affect men’s behavioral patterns in relation to their own health and may contribute to gender gaps in morbidity and life expectancy.
In most countries, men live shorter lives than women. At the same time, it is widely recognized that gender differences in mortality are determined not only by biological factors, but also by sociocultural influences on women’s and men’s attitudes toward their own health. For example, some cultural traditions approve of, or even encourage, alcohol consumption among men, whereas the same behavior is considered unacceptable for women. In a number of countries, women’s work outside the home is still socially discouraged, while men are expected to take an active position in the labor market and ensure an adequate income for their households.
The prevalence of risk-taking behavior among men leads to higher mortality from external causes, such as injuries, accidents, self-harm, and homicide. Because men are more likely to smoke and abuse alcohol, they face increased risks of respiratory diseases and diseases of the circulatory system.
National studies show that these tendencies are especially pronounced in Ukraine, where the medical and demographic crisis among men is intensified by the spread of socially determined diseases, such as tuberculosis, mental disorders associated with alcohol and psychoactive substance use, and sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS. Moreover, men are more often diagnosed with diseases at terminal stages, which is linked to their reluctance to visit doctors or undergo medical examinations.
These patterns of attitudes toward one’s own health are directly connected with stereotypical norms of masculinity, including the fear of losing control, the fear of showing weakness or embarrassment, and similar concerns. Unfulfilled attributes of hegemonic masculinity may lead to excessive psychological pressure, while the general suppression of emotions may cause psychological disorders and deep depression. As a consequence, men may seek other ways to confirm their masculinity, for example through alcohol or drug abuse, irresponsible sexual behavior, or aggression (Suchasne rozuminnia maskulinnosti, 2018, pp. 19–20).
Reference:
Suchasne rozuminnia maskulinnosti: Stavlennia cholovikiv do gendernykh stereotypiv i nasylstva shchodo zhinok [Contemporary understanding of masculinity: Men’s attitudes toward gender stereotypes and violence against women]. (2018). Kyiv: UNFPA Ukraine. Retrieved from https://lnk.ua/eNxLv0VAC [in Ukrainian].
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